Duties of the System

The Linux System Administrator
Using Linux involves much more than merely sitting down and turning on the
machine. Often you hear talk of a “steep learning curve” but that discouraging
phrase can be misleading. Instead, Linux is quite different from the most popular
commercial operating systems in a number of ways. While it is no more difficult to
learn than other operating systems, it is likely to seem very strange even to the
experienced administrator of other systems. In addition, the sophistication of a
number of parts of the Red Hat distribution has increased by an order of magnitude,
so even an experienced Linux administrator is likely to find much that is new and
unfamiliar. Fortunately, there are new tools designed to make system administration
easier than ever before.
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Make no mistake: Every computer in the world has a system administrator. It
may be—and probably is—true that the majority of system administrators are
those who decided what software and peripherals were bundled with the machine
when it was shipped. That status quo remains because the majority of users who
acquire computers for use as appliances probably do little to change the default
values. But the minute a user decides on a different wallpaper image or adds an
application that was acquired apart from the machine itself, he or she has taken on
the role of system administration.
The highfalutin title of system administrator brings with it some responsibilities.
No one whose computer is connected to the Internet, for instance, has been immune
to the effects of poorly administered systems, as demonstrated by the Distributed
Denial of Service (DDoS) and e-mail macro virus attacks that have shaken the
online world in recent years. The scope of these acts of computer vandalism (in
some cases, computer larceny) would have been greatly reduced if system administrators
had a better understanding of their duties.
Linux system administrators are likely to understand the necessity of active system
administration more than those who run whatever came on the computer,
assuming that things came properly configured from the factory. The user or enterprise
that decides on Linux has decided, too, to assume the control that Linux
offers, and the responsibilities that this entails.
By its very nature as a modern, multiuser operating system, Linux requires a
degree of administration greater than that of less robust, home-market systems.
This means that even if you use just a single machine connected to the Internet by
a dial-up modem—or not even connected at all—you have the benefits of the same
system employed by some of the largest businesses in the world, and will do many
of the same things that IT professionals employed by those companies are paid to
do. Administering your system does involve a degree of learning but it also means
that in setting up and configuring your own system you gain skills and understanding
that raise you above mere “computer user” status. The Linux system
administrator does not achieve that mantle by purchasing a computer but by taking
full control of what the computer does and how it does it.
You may end up configuring a small home or small office network of two or more
machines, perhaps including ones that are not running Linux. You may be responsible
for a business network of dozens of machines. The nature of system administration
in Linux is surprisingly constant, no matter how large or small your installation.
It merely involves enabling and configuring features you already have available.
By definition, the Linux system administrator is the person who has “root”
access, which is to say the one who is the system’s “super user” (or root user). A
standard Linux user is limited to whatever he or she can do with the underlying
engine of the system. But the root user has unfettered access to everything—all
user accounts, their home directories, and the files therein; all system configurations;
and all files on the system. A certain body of thought says that no one should
ever log in as “root,” because system administration tasks can be performed more
easily and safely through other, more specific means, which we discuss in due
course. Because the system administrator has full system privileges, your first duty
is to know what you’re doing, lest you break something.
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By definition, the Linux system administrator is the person who has “root”
access—the one who is the system’s “super user.”
The word duty implies a degree of drudgery; in fact, it’s a manifestation of the
tremendous flexibility of the system measured against the responsibility to run a
tight organization. These duties do not so much constrain you, the system administrator,
as free you to match the job to the task. Let’s take a brief look at them.
Installing and Configuring Servers
When you hear the word server to describe a computer, you probably think of a
computer that offers some type of service to clients. The server may provide file or
printer sharing, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) or Web access, or e-mail processing
tasks. Don’t think of a server as a standalone workstation; think of it as a computer
that specifically performs these services for many users.
In the Linux world, the word server has a broader meaning than what you might
be used to. For instance, the standard Red Hat graphical user interface (GUI)
requires a graphical layer called XFree86. This is a server. It runs even on a standalone
machine with one user account. It must be configured. (Fortunately, Red Hat
has made this a simple and painless part of installation on all but the most obscure
combinations of video card and monitor; gone are the days of anguish as you configure
a graphical desktop.)
Likewise, printing in Linux takes place only after you configure a print server.
Again, this has become so easy as to be nearly trivial.
In certain areas the client-server nomenclature can be confusing, though. While
you cannot have a graphical desktop without a server, you can have Web access
without a Web server, FTP access without running an FTP server, and e-mail capabilities
without ever starting a mail server. You may well want to use these servers,
all of which are included in Red Hat; then again, maybe not. Whenever a server is
connected to other machines outside your physical control, there are security implications
to consider. You want your users to have easy access to the things they
need but you don’t want to open up the system you’re administering to the whole
wide world.
Whenever a server is connected to machines outside your physical control,
security issues arise. You want users to have easy access to the things they
need but you don’t want to open up the system you’re administering to the
whole wide world.
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Linux distributions used to ship with all imaginable servers turned on by default.
Just installing the operating system on the computer would install and configure—
with default parameters—all the services available with the distribution. This was a
reflection of an earlier, more innocent era in computing when people did not consider
vandalizing other people’s machines to be good sportsmanship.
Unfortunately, the realities of this modern, more dangerous world dictate that all
but the most essential servers remain turned off unless specifically enabled and
configured. This duty falls to the system administrator. You need to know exactly
which servers you need and how to employ them, and to be aware that it is bad
practice and a potential security nightmare to enable services that the system isn’t
using and doesn’t need. Fortunately, the following pages show you how to carry
out this aspect of system administration easily and efficiently.
Installing and Configuring
Application Software
Although it is possible for individual users to install some applications in their
home directories—drive space set aside for their own files and customizations—
these applications are not available to other users without the intervention of the
system administrator. Besides, if an application is to be used by more than one user,
it probably needs to be installed higher up in the Linux file hierarchy, which is a job
that only the system administrator can perform. (The administrator can even decide
which users may use which applications by creating a “group” for that application
and enrolling individual users in that group.)
New software packages might be installed in /opt if they are likely to be
upgraded separately from the Red Hat distribution itself. Doing this makes it simple
to retain the old version until you are certain that the new version works and meets
your expectations. Some packages may need to go in /usr/local or even /usr if
they are upgrades of packages installed as part of Red Hat. (For instance, there are
sometimes security upgrades of existing packages.) The location of the installation
usually matters only if you compile the application from source code; if you use a
Red Hat Package Manager (RPM) application package, it automatically goes where
it should.
Configuration and customization of applications is to some extent at the user’s
discretion, but not entirely. “Skeleton” configurations—administrator-determined
default configurations—set the baseline for user employment of applications. If
there are particular forms, for example, that are used throughout an enterprise, the
system administrator would set them up or at least make them available by adding
them to the skeleton configuration. The same applies to configuring user desktops
and in even deciding what applications should appear on user desktop menus. For
instance, your company may not want to grant users access to the games that ship
with modern Linux desktops. You may also want to add menu items for newly
installed or custom applications. The system administrator brings all this to pass.
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Creating and Maintaining
User Accounts
Not just anyone can show up and log on to a Linux machine. An account must be
created for each user and—you guessed it—no one but the system administrator
can do this. That’s simple enough.
But there’s more. It involves decisions that either you or your company must
make. You might want to let users select their own passwords, which would no doubt
make them easier to remember but which probably would be easier for a malefactor
to crack. You might want to assign passwords, which is more secure in theory but
increases the likelihood that users will write them down on a conveniently located
scrap of paper—a risk if many people have access to the area where the machine(s)
is located. You might decide that users must change their passwords periodically—
something you can configure Red Hat Enterprise Linux to prompt users about.
What happens to old accounts? Suppose someone leaves the company. You probably
don’t want him or her to gain access to the company network, but you also
don’t want to delete the account wholesale, only to discover later that essential data
resided nowhere else.
To what may specific users have access? It might be that there are aspects of
your business that make Web access desirable, but you don’t want everyone spending
their working hours surfing the Web. If your system is at home, you may wish
to limit your children’s access to certain Web sites.
These and other issues are part of the system administrator’s duties in managing
user accounts. Whether the administrator or his or her employer establishes policies
governing accounts, these policies should be delineated—preferably in writing for
a company—for the protection of all concerned.
Backing Up and Restoring Files
Until computer equipment becomes infallible, until people lose the desire to harm
others’ property, and—truth be told—until system administrators become perfect,
there is considerable need to back up important files so that the system can be up
and running again with minimal disruption in the event of hardware, security, or
administration failure. Only the system administrator may do this. (Because of its
built-in security features, Linux doesn’t allow users even to back up their own files
to removable disks.)
It’s not enough to know that performing backups is your job. You need to formulate
a strategy for making sure your system is not vulnerable to catastrophic disruption.
This is not always obvious. If you have a high-capacity tape drive and several
good sets of restore disks, you might make a full system backup every few days. If
you are managing a system with scores of users, you might find it more sensible to
back up user accounts and system configuration files, figuring that reinstallation
from the distribution CDs would be quicker and easier than getting the basics off a
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tape archive. (Don’t forget about applications you install separately from your Red
Hat distribution, especially those involving heavy customization.)
Once you decide what to back up, you need to decide how frequently to perform
backups, whether to maintain a series of incremental backups—adding only files
that have changed since the last backup—or multiple full backups, and when these
backups should be performed. Do you trust an automated, unattended process? If
you help determine which equipment to use, do you go with a redundant array of
independent disks (RAID), which is to say multiple hard drives all containing the
same data as insurance against the failure of any one of them, in addition to other
backup systems? (A RAID is not enough because hard drive failure is not the only
means by which a system can be brought to a halt.)
You don’t want to become complacent or foster a lackadaisical attitude among
users. Part of your strategy should be to maintain perfect backups without ever
needing to resort to them. This means encouraging users to keep multiple copies of
their important files in their home directories so that you won’t be asked to mount
a backup to restore a file that a user corrupted. (If your system is a standalone one
then, as your own system administrator, you should make a habit of backing up
your configuration and other important files.)
Restoring files from your backup media is no less important than backing them
up in the first place. Be certain you can restore your files if the need arises by testing
your restore process at least once during a noncritical time.
Chances are good that even if you work for a company, you’ll be the one making
these decisions. Your boss just wants a system that runs perfectly, all the time.
Backing up is only part of the story, however. You need to formulate a plan for
bringing the system back up after a failure. A system failure could be caused by any
number of problems, either related to hardware or software (application, system
configuration) trouble, and could range from a minor inconvenience to complete
shutdown.
Hardware failures caused by improper configuration can be corrected by properly
configuring the device. Sometimes hardware failures are caused by the device
itself, which typically requires replacing the device. Software failures caused by
improperly configured system files are usually corrected by properly configuring
those files. An application can cause the system to fail for many reasons and may
require a lot of research on the part of the administrator to find the root of the
problem.
If you are the administrator of servers and workstations for a business, you
should have a disaster recovery plan in place. Such a plan takes into account the
type of data and services provided and how much fault tolerance your systems
require—that is, how long your systems could be down and what effect that would
have on your company’s ability to conduct business. If you require 100 percent
fault tolerance, meaning your systems must be online 24/7, then disaster recovery
is unnecessary as your systems never go down and there is no disaster from which
to recover. Most organizations, though, cannot afford such a high level of fault tolerance;
they are willing to accept less stringent standards. Based on the level of
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fault tolerance you require, your disaster recovery plan should list as many possible
failures as you can anticipate and detail the steps required to restore your systems.
In Chapter 2, we describe fault tolerance and disaster recovery in more detail.
Backing up is only part of the story. You need to formulate a disaster recovery
plan to bring your system back up in the event of a failure.
Monitoring and Tuning Performance
The default installation of Red Hat Enterprise Linux goes a long way toward capitalizing
on existing system resources. There is no “one size fits all” configuration,
however. Linux is infinitely configurable, or close to it.
On a modern standalone system, Linux runs pretty quickly. If it doesn’t, there’s
something wrong—something the system administrator can fix. Still, you might
want to squeeze one last little bit of performance out of your hardware—or a number
of people might be using the same file server, mail server, or other shared machine,
in which case seemingly small improvements in system performance add up.
System tuning is an ongoing process aided by a variety of diagnostic and monitoring
tools. Some performance decisions are made at installation time, while others
are added or tweaked later. A good example is the use of the hdparm utility, which
can increase throughput in IDE drives considerably; but for some high-speed modes
a check of system logs shows that faulty or inexpensive cables can, in combination
with hdparm, produce an enormity of nondestructive but system-slowing errors.
Proper monitoring allows you to detect a misbehaving application that consumes
more resources than it should or fails to exit completely upon closing.
Through the use of system performance tools you can determine when hardware—
such as memory, added storage, or even something as elaborate as a hardware
RAID—should be upgraded for more cost-effective use of a machine in the enterprise
or for complicated computational tasks such as three-dimensional rendering.
Possibly most important, careful system monitoring and diagnostic practices
give you an early heads-up when a system component is showing early signs of
failure, so that you can minimize any potential downtime. Combined with the
resources for determining which components are best supported by Red Hat
Enterprise Linux, performance monitoring can result in replacement components
which are far more robust and efficient in some cases.
In any case, careful system monitoring plus wise use of the built-in configurability
of Linux allows you to squeeze the best possible performance from your existing
equipment, from customizing video drivers to applying special kernel patches
or simply turning off unneeded services to free memory and processor cycles.
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To squeeze the best performance from your equipment, monitor your system
carefully and use Linux’s built-in configurability wisely.
Configuring a Secure System
If there is a common thread in Linux system administration, it is the security of the
computer and data integrity.
What does this mean? Just about everything. The system administrator’s task,
first and foremost, is to make certain that no data on the machine or network are
likely to become corrupted, whether by hardware or power failure, by misconfiguration
or user error (to the extent that the latter can be avoided), or by malicious or
inadvertent intrusion from elsewhere. It means doing all the tasks described
throughout this chapter, and doing them well, with a full understanding of their
implications.
No one involved in computing has failed to hear of the succession of increasingly
serious attacks on machines connected to the Internet. For the most part,
these attacks have not targeted Linux systems. That doesn’t mean Linux systems
have been entirely immune, either to direct attack or to the effects of attacks on
machines running other operating systems. In one Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS) attack aimed at several major online companies, for instance, many “zombie”
machines—those that had been exploited so that the vandals could employ
thousands of machines instead of just a few—were running Linux that had not
been patched to guard against a well-known security flaw. In the various “Code
Red” attacks during the summer of 2001, Linux machines themselves were invulnerable,
but the huge amount of traffic generated by this “worm” infection nevertheless
prevented many Linux machines from accomplishing much Web-based
work for several weeks, so fierce was the storm raging across the Internet. And few
e-mail users have been immune from receiving at least some “SirCam” messages—
nonsensical messages from strangers with randomly selected files attached from
their machines. While this infection did not corrupt Linux machines per se, as it did
those running MS Windows, anyone on a dial-up Internet connection who had to
endure downloading several megabytes of infected mail each day would scarcely
describe himself or herself as unaffected by the attack.
Depending on how a Linux machine is connected, and to what, the sensitivity of
the data it contains and the uses to which it is put, security can be as simple as
turning off unneeded services, monitoring the Red Hat security mailing list to make
sure that all security advisories are followed, and otherwise engaging in good computing
practices to make sure the system runs robustly. It’s almost a full-time job
involving levels of security permissions within the system and systems to which it
is connected; elaborate firewalls to protect not just Linux machines but machines
that, through their use of non-Linux software, are far more vulnerable; and physical
security—making sure no one steals the machine itself!
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For any machine connected to another machine, security means hardening
against attacks and making certain no one else uses your machine as a platform for
launching attacks against others. If you run Web, FTP, or mail servers, it means giving
access to only those who are entitled to it, while locking out everyone else. It
means making sure that passwords are not easily guessed and not made available
to unauthorized persons. It means that disgruntled former employees no longer
have access to the system and that no unauthorized person may copy files from
your machines.
Security is an ongoing process. The only really secure computer is one that contains
no data, is unplugged from networks and power supplies, has no keyboard
attached, and resides in a locked vault. While that is theoretically true, it implies
that security diminishes the usefulness of the machine. Your job as system administrator
is to strike the right balance between maximum utility and maximum
safety, all the while bearing in mind that confidence in a secure machine today
means nothing about the machine’s security tomorrow.
In the chapters that follow, you learn about the many tools that Red Hat provides
to help you guard against intrusion, even to help you prevent intrusion into non-
Linux machines that may reside on your network. Linux is designed from the
beginning with security in mind. In all your tasks you should maintain that same
security awareness.
Your job as system administrator is to strike the right balance between maximum
utility and maximum safety, all the while bearing in mind that confidence
in a secure machine today means nothing about the machine’s security
tomorrow.
Using Tools to Monitor Security
People who, for purposes of larceny or to amuse themselves, like to break into computers—
they’re called “crackers”—are a clever bunch. If there is a vulnerability in
a system, they will find it. Fortunately, the Linux development community is quick
to find potential exploits and to create ways of slamming the door shut before
crackers can enter. Fortunately, too, Red Hat is diligent in making available new,
patched versions of packages in which potential exploits have been found. Your
first and best security tool, therefore, is making sure that whenever a security advisory
is issued, you download and install the repaired package. This line of defense
can be annoying but it is nothing compared to rebuilding a compromised system.
As good as the bug trackers are, sometimes their job is reactive. Preventing the use
of your machine for nefarious purposes and guarding against intrusion are, in the
end, your responsibility alone. Red Hat equips you with tools to detect and deal with
unauthorized access of many kinds. As this book unfolds, you’ll learn how to install
and configure these tools and how to make sense of the warnings they provide. Pay
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careful attention to those sections and do what they say. If your machine is connected
to the Internet, you will be amazed at the number of attempts made to break
into your machine. You’ll be struck by how critical the issue of security is.
Summary
As you, the system administrator, read this book, bear in mind that your tasks are
ongoing and that there is never a machine that is completely tuned, entirely up-todate,
and utterly secure for very long. The pace of Linux development is quite rapid,
so it’s important to keep current in the latest breakthroughs. This book gives you the
very best information as to the Red Hat distribution you’re using and tells you all
you need to know about getting the most from it. Even more than that, you should
read it with an eye toward developing a Linux system administrator’s point of view,
an understanding of how the system works as opposed to the mere performance of
tasks. As the best system administrators will tell you, system administration is a state
of mind.
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